Uruk was one of the most important cities in ancient Mesopotamia, and at one time, the most important. According to the Sumerian King List, it was founded by King Enmerkar around 4500 BCE. Uruk is best known as the birthplace of writing around 3200 BCE, as well as for its architecture and other cultural innovations.
Located in the southern region of Sumer (modern-day Warka, Iraq), Uruk was known in the Aramaic language as Erech, which is believed to have given rise to the modern name for the country of Iraq. Another likely derivation is Al-Iraq, the Arabic name for the region of Babylonia.
The city of Uruk is most famous for its great king Gilgamesh and the epic tale of his quest for immortality, as well as for a number of firsts in the development of civilization that occurred there. It is considered the first true city in the world, the origin of writing, the first example of architectural work in stone and the building of great stone structures, the origin of the ziggurat, and the first city to develop the cylinder seal which ancient Mesopotamians used to designate personal property or as a signature on documents.
Considering the importance the cylinder seal had for the people of the time, and that it stood for one’s personal identity and reputation, Uruk could also be credited as the city which first recognized the importance of the individual in the collective community. The city was continuously inhabited from its founding until around 300 CE when, owing to both natural and man-made influences, people began to desert the area. By this time, it had depleted natural resources in the surrounding area and was no longer a major political or commercial power. It lay abandoned and buried until excavated in 1853 by William Loftus for the British Museum.
The Uruk Period
The Ubaid Period (c. 5000-4100 BCE), when the so-called Ubaid people first inhabited the region of Sumer, is followed by the Uruk Period (4100-2900 BCE) during which cities began to develop across Mesopotamia and Uruk became the most influential.
The Uruk Period is divided into 8 phases from the oldest, through its prominence, to its decline based on the levels of the ruins excavated and the history revealed by the artifacts found there. The city was most influential between 4100-c.3000 BCE when Uruk was the largest urban center and the hub of trade and administration. The precise manner in which Uruk ruled the region, why and how it became the first city in the world, and how it exercised its authority are not fully known.
Since the city of Ur had a more advantageous placement for trade, further south toward the Persian Gulf, it would seem to make sense that that city, rather than Uruk, would have wielded more influence, but this is not the case. Artifacts from Uruk appear at virtually every excavated site throughout Mesopotamia and even in Egypt.
This bowl was the means by which workers seem to have been paid: by a certain amount of grain ladled into a standard-sized bowl. The remains of these bowls, throughout all of Mesopotamia, suggest that they “were frequently discarded immediately after use, like the aluminum foil containing a modern take-away meal” (Reade, 30). So popular was the beveled-rim bowl that manufacturing centers sprang up throughout Mesopotamia extending as far away from Uruk as the city of Mari in the far north. Because of this, it is unclear if the bowl originated at Uruk or elsewhere (though Uruk is generally held as the bowl’s origin). If it originated in Uruk, then the beveled-rim bowl must be counted among the city’s many accomplishments as it is the first known example of a mass-produced product.
The City Districts & Gods
The city was divided into two sections: the Eanna District and the older Anu District, named for and dedicated to the goddess Inanna and her grandfather-god Anu, respectively. The famous Mask of Warka (also known as ‘The Lady of Uruk’), a sculpted marble female face found at Uruk, is considered a likeness of Inanna and was most likely part of a larger work from one of the temples in her district. The Eanna District was walled off from the rest of the city, but it is unclear if this was for ceremonial purposes or if, in building the newer Eanna District, the builders required a wall for some reason. Scholar Samuel Noah Kramer suggests that Anu, the male god, presided over the early city until the rise in popularity of his daughter Inanna and, at this time, she was given a private dwelling complete with a wall in the Eanna District.
Since temples were considered the literal dwelling place of deities on earth, and since Inanna is regularly depicted as a goddess who very much preferred things her own way, perhaps the walled district was simply to provide her with some privacy. Kramer also notes that even though Inanna continued to be a popular deity throughout Mesopotamia (eventually merging into Ishtar), goddesses declined in power and prestige at the same time (during the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon), and at the same rate, as women’s rights deteriorated. This being the case, perhaps the Eanna District was walled off to restrict access to a male priestly class. As with much concerning Uruk’s history, however, this theory remains largely speculative. Inanna played a pivotal role in the mythological history of Uruk as it was she who stole the sacred meh from her father-god Enki at the sacred city of Eridu and brought them to Uruk.
The meh were, in the words of Kramer (who first translated the cuneiform), “divine decrees which are the basis of the culture pattern of Sumerian civilization.” As Eridu was considered by the Sumerians the first city created by the gods and a place holy to them, the removal of the meh to Uruk signified a transference of power and prestige from one city to the other. In the tale of Inanna and The God of Wisdom, Enki god goes to great lengths, once he finds the meh are stolen, to have them brought back to Eridu – but in vain. Inanna has tricked her father, and now Uruk, not Eridu, would be the seat of power. Eridu was associated with rural life and the primordial sea from which life sprang; Uruk was the embodiment of the new way of life – the city. The story would have provided an ancient Mesopotamian with the reason why Eridu declined in importance and Uruk rose to the heights it did: it was the work of the gods.
Uruk’s Importance & Long Decline
During the Early Dynastic Period (2900-2334 BCE), Uruk remained a significant center of power, with major dynasties ruling from the city. The great wall, attributed to King Gilgamesh, still surrounded Uruk during the reign of King Eannutum. Later, Lugal-Zage chose Uruk as his capital. Sargon of Akkad continued to honor Uruk when he ruled Sumer under the Akkadian Empire. Uruk remained important through the Ur III Period (2047-1750 BCE) and the Seleucid and Parthian periods. Despite setbacks, Uruk stood out compared to other Sumerian cities. The city’s sacred districts were maintained until the 7th century CE. Uruk’s enduring significance may be linked to societal shifts and conflicts between tradition and innovation. The transition from Eridu to Uruk symbolized the rise of urban communities. Uruk was only abandoned during the Muslim Conquest in 630 CE.
